中国宪法是什么？
宪法是一个对国家体制的基本状态、原则、公民基本权利、义务的规定。也是一个国家基本走向的规定。宪法就像一个人的人格，表现着一个国家的性格风貌。人类在没有摆脱国家组织形态的时代，作为每一个个体享受并履行怎样的权力和义务完全由宪法规定下来。
在现代中国，宪法的内容与实际行事可以完全相反，中国的宪法不仅可以按帝王的意旨随意更改，而且当权者也无意真心履行，所以毫无价值。这样不被当权者履行的东西当然也不会被内外人认可。所以，中国的宪法只被认为是权贵集团需要时拿来骗人的玩艺儿，只是中国权贵可以任意践踏、糟蹋的妓女而已。中国的宪法毫无尊严性可言。例如，中国宪法第三十五条“中华人民共和国公民有言论、出版、集会、结社、游行、示威的自由”，中国宪法第二条规定：“中华人民共和国的一切权力属于人民，以及中国宪法的历史上，毛泽东还将重郑其事写进宪法中的接班人随意迫于死地，还有其他诸多的根本不履行的说辞条项，而实际上中国的宪法是怎么行事，所有的人都很清楚。从反右、文革，到当今的文字狱、防火墙等等，哪一项都是在违反宪法，可违反宪法的犯人就是当权的帝王权贵们，谁也没有办法依照中国宪法拿他们怎么样。中国宪法第二条规定：“中华人民共和国的一切权力属于人民”，但民众根本没有选举权、监督权，也没有“言论、出版、集会、结社、游行、示威的自由”更不能去执行宪法。人们对中国宪法何等无奈，对随意违宪的权贵集团多么愤懑。
中国宪法完全是帝王在瞎扯，连对至高无上的宪法都如此，就难怪世界上的人都认为中国人不诚实，为满足私欲可以把任何事物都拿来作工具，只有极端自私、极端鼠目寸光的人种才会这样做。
中国政府之所以不被内外信任，有选择性执法，不公正行事,宪法无效力是主要原因。中国是一个非民主体制国家，其宪法对民权虽有规定却不实行。中国宪法在专制体制下只是作为给帝王装点门面的饰物，基本上是不实行的。
宪法是一个国家的根本面目，是必须要遵守的基本走向。但时下的现实状况是宪法所规定的事项不被遵守，或被权贵任意歪曲恶用，以致被世人视为欺骗工具，失去了其尊严性，并使国家、社会无基本法律可作为发展的依凭准则。中国政府之所以被内外不信任，有选择性执法，不公正行事,宪法无效力是主要原因。
民定宪法是现代世界大多数国家的宪法形式，是人民意志的反映，美国宪法、法国现行宪法等皆属此类。
世界上最早的宪法是英国的不成文宪法。17世纪中期资产阶级与封建贵族争夺政权过程中，相互妥协产生通过了一系列逐步限制王权和扩大资产阶级政治权力的宪法，如《权利法案》、《人身保护法》、《王位继承法》、《国会法》等，这些宪法性法律同政治惯例、司法判例一起构成了英国宪法，确立了英国立宪君主制政体和议会内阁制。英国是世界上最早的宪法国家，根据各个历史时期颁布的宪法性文件、法院判例和国会惯例形成了英国的宪法规则。
英国在中世纪时期建立了代议制度，确立了国王没有得到议会同意就不得征税和进行其他立法的原则。后来代议制度普及于欧美各国，人们就把规定代议制度的法律称为宪法，指确定的立宪政体法律。
美国在反对英国殖民统治的独立战争胜利后，于1776年由各州的代表参加的制宪会议草拟了《邦联条例》，经各州批准后于1781年3月生效，成为美国也是世界上第一部成文宪法，开创了一个成文宪法时代。1787年9月通过的《美国宪法》于1789年4月生效，这部宪法确立了美国的联邦制度和以三权分立为核心的总统制。美国宪法是资本主义国家第一部成文宪法，它是以1776年美国独立战争胜利后通过的《独立宣言》和联邦条例为基础，于1787年在费城制宪会议上制定的，在资本主义国家制宪中产生了很大的影响。
1791年法国制定了欧洲大陆第一部宪法，把1789年法国大革命中诞生的《人权与公民权宣言》作为宪法的序言，在这部宪法的基础上建立起法兰西第一共和国。
现代世界大多数国家的宪法形式，是人民意志的反映，美国宪法、法国现行宪法等皆属此类。
此后欧洲各国相继模仿制定了宪法，进入近代国家体制。1831年比利时王国制定宪法，1848年普鲁士王国宪法等相继出现。
19世纪60年代日本明治维新时期，伊藤博文等对欧洲政体进行了一年多的详尽考查，积极学习欧洲各国宪法，吸收西方立宪政体，翻译各国宪法，根据日本历史，并也根据日本社会民权运动的要求，着手制定《大日本帝国宪法》，并向天皇进行连续解说。
1885年日本在伊藤博文组织下成立了政府内阁，伊藤任首任总理。1887年在神奈川夏岛商讨了宪法草案，参加宪法草案商讨的德国人对天皇“万事一统”提出了异议，认为不应对权力有这样无法预定的预言。
1889年《大日本帝国宪法》颁布，纳入了三权分立的结构。
第一条就是由“万世一统的天皇统治日本”，第四条规定“天皇作为国家元首总揽统治权，按此宪法规定行使权力”。对幕府倒塌后的天皇权力明确确定。同时也对公民权利、义务进行了规定。由此奠定了日本宪政体制。1925年犬养毅总理对日本风起云涌的民众民主要求运动作出回应，修改宪法让普通人拥有参政权，日本国会通过了普通选举法，25岁以上的男子拥有了选举权。政党为了获得选票而积极活动以获得选民认可和支持。日本在国体上尽力做到与先进国家接轨。
二战后，日本在美国占领军指导下，制定完成了彻底的民主宪法。并让天皇宣布自己是人不是神的《人间宣言》。把民主的观念彻底移植到日本社会，由此，美国麦克阿瑟受到日本人民的高度评价和衷心感谢。
中国由平民知识分子起草的第一部宪法性文件是1998年的《98宪章》。虽然内容上不尽完美，参与起草的人也都被中国专制政府迫害，或通缉或判刑。但其行为本身标志着自天安门事件开始的民众参政意识的觉醒、参政要求和广泛的民主行动，在世界上影响巨大。
关于人权和民族权力的宣言（中英文）
美国《独立宣言》 (中英文对照)
在人类事务发展的过程中，当一个民族必须解除同另一个民族的联系，并按照自然法则和上帝的旨意，以独立平等的身份立于世界列国之林时，出于对人类舆论的尊重，必须把驱使他们独立的原因予以宣布。
我们认为下述真理是不言而喻的：人人生而平等，造物主赋予他们若干不可让与的权利，其中包括生存权、自由权和追求幸福的权利。为了保障这些权利，人们才在他们中间建立政府，而政府的正当权利，则是经被统治者同意授予的。任何形式的政府一旦对这些目标的实现起破坏作用时，人民便有权予以更换或废除，以建立一个新的政府。新政府所依据的原则和组织其权利的方式，务使人民认为唯有这样才最有可能使他们获得安全和幸福。若真要审慎的来说，成立多年的政府是不应当由于无关紧要的和一时的原因而予以更换的。过去的一切经验都说明，任何苦难，只要尚能忍受，人类还是情愿忍受，也不想为申冤而废除他们久已习惯了的政府形式。然而，当始终追求同一目标的一系列滥用职权和强取豪夺的行为表明政府企图把人民至于专制暴政之下时，人民就有权也有义务去推翻这样的政府，并为其未来的安全提供新的保障。这就是这些殖民地过去忍受苦难的经过，也是他们现在不得不改变政府制度的原因。当今大不列颠王国的历史，就是屡屡伤害和掠夺这些殖民地的历史，其直接目标就是要在各州之上建立一个独裁暴政。为了证明上述句句属实，现将事实公诸于世，让公正的世人作出评判。
他拒绝批准对公众利益最有益、最必需的法律。
他禁止他的殖民总督批准刻不容缓、极端重要的法律，要不就先行搁置这些法律直至征得他的同意，而这些法律被搁置以后，他又完全置之不理。
他拒绝批准便利大地区人民的其他的法律，除非这些地区的人民情愿放弃自己在自己在立法机构中的代表权；而代表权对人民是无比珍贵的，只有暴君才畏惧它。
他把各州的立法委员召集到一个异乎寻常、极不舒适而有远离他们的档案库的地方去开会，其目的无非是使他们疲惫不堪，被迫就范。
他一再解散各州的众议院，因为后者坚决反对他侵犯人民的权利。
他在解散众议院之后，又长期拒绝另选他人，于是这项不可剥夺的立法权便归由普通人民来行使，致使在这其间各州仍处于外敌入侵和内部骚乱的种种危险之中。
他力图阻止各州增加人口，为此目的，他阻挠外国人入籍法的通过，拒绝批准其他鼓励移民的法律，并提高分配新土地的条件。
他拒绝批准建立司法权利的法律，以阻挠司法的执行。
他迫使法官为了保住任期、薪金的数额和支付而置于他个人意志的支配之下。
他滥设新官署，委派大批官员到这里骚扰我们的人民，吞噬他们的财物。
他在和平时期，未经我们立法机构同意，就在我们中间维持其常备军。
他施加影响，使军队独立于文官政权之外，并凌驾于文官政权之上。
他同他人勾结，把我们置于一种既不符合我们的法规也未经我们法律承认的管辖之下，而且还批准他们炮制的各种伪法案，以便任其在我们中间驻扎大批武装部队；不论这些人对我们各州居民犯下何等严重的谋杀罪，他可用加审判来庇护他们，让他们逍遥法外；他可以切断我们同世界各地的贸易；未经我们同意便向我们强行征税；在许多案件中剥夺我们享有陪审制的权益；以莫须有的罪名把我们押送海外受审；他在一个邻省废除了英国法律的自由制度，在那里建立专制政府，扩大其疆域，使其立即成为一个样板和合适的工具，以便向这里各殖民地推行同样的专制统治；他取消我们的许多特许状，废除我们最珍贵的法律并从根本上改变我们各州政府的形式；他终止我们立法机构行使权力，宣称他们自己拥有在任何情况下为我们制定法律的权力。
他们放弃设在这里的政府，宣称我们已不属他们保护之列，并向我们发动战争。
他在我们的海域里大肆掠夺，蹂躏我们的沿海地区，烧毁我们的城镇，残害我们人民的生命。
他此时正在运送大批外国雇佣兵，来从事其制造死亡、荒凉和暴政的勾当，其残忍与卑劣从一开始就连最野蛮的时代也难以相比，他已完全不配当一个文明国家的元首。
他强迫我们在公海被他们俘虏的同胞拿起武器反对自己的国家，使他们成为残杀自己亲友的刽子手，或使他们死于自己亲友的手下。
他在我们中间煽动内乱，并竭力挑唆残酷无情的印地安蛮子来对付我们边疆的居民，而众所周知，印地安人作战的准则是不分男女老幼、是非曲直，格杀勿论。
在遭受这些压迫的每一阶段，我们都曾以最谦卑的言辞吁请予以纠正。而我们一次又一次的情愿，却只是被报以一次又一次的伤害。
一个君主，其品格被他的每一个只有暴君才干的出的行为所暴露时，就不配君临自由的人民。
我们并不是没有想到我们英国的弟兄。他们的立法机关想把无理的管辖权扩展到我们这里来，我们时常把这个企图通知他们。我们也曾把我们移民来这里和在这里定居的情况告诉他们。我们曾恳求他们天生的正义感和雅量，念在同种同宗的分上，弃绝这些掠夺行为，因为这些掠夺行为难免会使我们之间的关系和来往中断。可他们对这种正义和同宗的呼声也同样充耳不闻。因此，我们不得不宣布脱离他们，以对待世界上其他民族的态度对待他们：同我交战者，就是敌人；同我和好者，即为朋友。
因此我们这些在大陆会议上集会的美利坚合众国的代表们，以各殖民地善良人民的名义，并经他们授权，向世界最高裁判者申诉，说明我们的严重意向，同时郑重宣布：
我们这些联合起来的殖民地现在是，而且按公理也应该是，独立自由的国家；我们对英国王室效忠的全部义务，我们与大不列颠王国之间大不列颠一切政治联系全部断绝，而且必须断绝。
作为一个独立自由的国家，我们完全有权宣战、缔和、结盟、通商和采取独立国家有权采取的一切行动。
我们坚定地信赖神明上帝的保佑，同时以我们的生命、财产和神圣的名誉彼此宣誓来支持这一宣言。
〔说明〕
杰斐逊起草了《独立宣言》的第一稿，富兰克林等人又进行了润色。大陆会议对此稿又进行了长时间的、激烈的辩论，最终作出了重大的修改。特别是在佐治亚和卡罗来纳代表们的坚持下，删去了杰斐逊对英王乔治三世允许在殖民地保持奴隶制和奴隶买卖的有力谴责。这一部分的原文是这样的：
他的人性本身发动了残酷的战争，侵犯了一个从未冒犯过他的远方民族的最神圣的生存权和自由权；他诱骗他们，并把他们运往另一半球充当奴隶，或使他们惨死在运送途中。
托马斯。杰斐逊（1743-1826），生于弗吉尼亚的一个富裕家庭。曾就读于威廉-玛丽学院。1767年成为律师，1769年当选为弗吉尼亚下院议院。他积极投身于独立运动之中，并代表弗吉尼亚出席大陆会议。他曾两次当选弗吉尼亚州长。1800年当选美国总统。
杰斐逊在为自己的墓碑而作的墓志铭中这样写到：
这里埋葬着托马斯。杰斐逊，美国《独立宣言》的作者，弗吉尼亚宗教自由法规的制定者和弗吉尼亚大学之父。
The Declaration of Independence
IN CONGRESS, JULY 4,
1776 THE UNANIMOUS
DECLARATION OF THE
THIRTEEN UNITED
STATES OF AMERAICA
When in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the laws Nature and Nature’s God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.
We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights, that they are among these are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. That to secure these rights, governments are instituted among them, deriving their just power from the consent of the governed. That whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shown that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than t right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such government, and to provide new guards for their future security. Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now the necessity, which constrains them to alter their former systems of government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is usurpations, all having in direct object tyranny over these States. To prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world.
He has refused his assent to laws, the most wholesome and necessary for the public good.
He has forbidden his Governors to pass laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend them.
He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of representation in the Legislature, a right inestimable to them and formidable to tyrants only.
He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their public records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures.]
He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for opposing with manly firmness his invasion on the rights of the people.
He has refused for a long time, after such dissolution, to cause others to be elected ; whereby the legislative powers, incapable of annihilation, have returned to the people at large for their exercise; the State remaining in the meantime exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without and convulsion within.
He has endeavored to prevent the population of these states; for that purpose obstructing the laws of naturalizing of foreigners; refusing to pass others to encourage their migration hither, and raising the condition of new appropriations of lands.
He has obstructed the administration of justice, by refusing his assent of laws for establishing judiciary powers.
He has made judges dependent on his will alone, for the tenure of their office, and the amount and payment of their salary.
He has erected a multitude of new officers, and sent hither swarms of officers to harass our people, and eat out our substances.
He has kept among us, in times of peace, standing armies without the consent of our legislatures.
He has affected to render the military independent of and superior to the civil power.
He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his assent to their acts of pretended legislation.
For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us;
For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for any murder which they should commit on the inhabitants of these States.
For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world;
For imposing taxes on us without our consent;
For depriving us in many cases, of the benefits of trial by jury;
For transporting us beyond seas to be tried for pretended offenses;
For abolishing the free systems of English laws in a neighboring Province, establishing therein an arbitrary government, and enlarging its boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule these Colonies;
For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, and altering fundamentally the forms of our governments;
For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever.
He has abdicated government here, by declaring us out of his protection and waging war against us.
He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people.
He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries to complete the works of death, desolation and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely parallel in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the head of a civilized nation.
He has constrained our fellow citizens taken captive on the high seas to bear arms against their country, to become the executioners of their friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands.
He has excited domestic insurrection amongst us, and has endeavored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian savages, whose known rule of warfare, is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes, and conditions.
In every stage of these oppressions we have petitioned for redress in the most humble terms: our repeated petition have been answered only by repeated injury. A prince whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a tyrant is unfit to be the ruler of a free people.
Nor have we been wanting in attention to our British brethren. We have warned them from time to time of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpation, which would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our separation, and hold them., as we hold the rest of mankind, enemies in war, in peace friends.
We, therefore, the Representatives of the United States of America, in General Congress assembled , appealing to the supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name, and by authority of the good people of these Colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these United States Colonies and Independent States; that they are absolved by from all allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State, they have full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, and to do all other acts and things which Independent States may of right do. And for the support of this declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor
世界人权宣言（中英文）
1948年的12月10日，联合国大会第217A(III)号决议通过并颁布了《世界人权宣言》。作为第一个关于人权的专门性国际文件，大会要求所有会员国广为宣传，并且“不分国家或领土的政治地位,主要在各级学校和其他教育机构加以传播、展示、阅读和阐述。”《世界人权宣言》对于推动世界人权事业的进步和发展作出了不可磨灭的贡献，成为世界人权史上的一个重要里程碑。
《世界人权宣言》
序言
鉴于对人类家庭所有成员的固有尊严及其平等的和不移的权利的承认,乃是世界自由、正义与和平的基础, 鉴于对人权的无视和侮蔑已发展为野蛮暴行,这些暴行玷污了人类的良心,而一个人人享有言论和信仰自由并免予恐惧和匮乏的世界的来临,已被宣布为普通人民的最高愿望, 鉴于为使人类不致迫不得已铤而走险对暴政和压迫进行反叛,有必要使人权受法治的保护, 鉴于有必要促进各国间友好关系的发展, 鉴于各联合国国家的人民已在联合国宪章中重申他们对基本人权、人格尊严和价值以及男女平等权利的信念,并决心促成较大自由中的社会进步和生活水平的改善, 鉴于各会员国业已誓愿同联合国合作以促进对人权和基本自由的普遍尊重和遵行, 鉴于对这些权利和自由的普遍了解对于这个誓愿的充分实现具有很大的重要性, 因此现在,大会,发布这一世界人权宣言,作为所有人民和所有国家努力实现的共同标准,以期每一个人和社会机构经常铭念本宣言,努力通过教诲和教育促进对权利和自由的尊重,并通过国家的和国际的渐进措施,使这些权利和自由在各会员国本身人民及在其管辖下领土的人民中得到普遍和有效的承认和遵行; 第一条 人人生而自由,在尊严和权利上一律平等。他们赋有理性和良心,并应以兄弟关系的精神相对待。
第二条 人人有资格享有本宣言所载的一切权利和自由,不分种族、肤色、性别、语言、宗教、政治或其他见解、国籍或社会出身、财产、出生或其他身分等任何区别。 并且不得因一人所属的国家或领土的政治的、行政的或者国际的地位之不同而有所区别,无论该领土是独立领土、托管领土、非自治领土或者处于其他任何主权受限制的情况之下。
第三条 人人有权享有生命、自由和人身安全。
第四条 任何人不得使为奴隶或奴役;一切形式的奴隶制度和奴隶买卖,均应予以禁止。
第五条 任何人不得加以酷刑,或施以残忍的、不人道的或侮辱性的待遇或刑罚。
第六条 人人在任何地方有权被承认在法律前的人格。
第七条 法律之前人人平等,并有权享受法律的平等保护,不受任何歧视。人人有权享受平等保护,以免受违反本宣言的任何歧视行为以及煽动这种歧视的任何行为之害。
第八条 任何人当宪法或法律所赋予他的基本权利遭受侵害时,有权由合格的国家法庭对这种侵害行为作有效的补救。
第九条 任何人不得加以任意逮捕、拘禁或放逐。
第十条 人人完全平等地有权由一个独立而无偏倚的法庭进行公正的和公开的审讯,以确定他的权利和义务并判定对他提出的任何刑事指控。
第十一条
㈠凡受刑事控告者,在未经获得辩护上所需的一切保证的公开审判而依法证实有罪以前,有权被视为无罪。
㈡任何人的任何行为或不行为,在其发生时依国家法或国际法均不构成刑事罪者,不得被判为犯有刑事罪。刑罚不得重于犯罪时适用的法律规定。
第十二条 任何人的私生活、家庭、住宅和通信不得任意干涉,他的荣誉和名誉不得加以攻击。人人有权享受法律保护,以免受这种干涉或攻击。
第十三条
㈠人人在各国境内有权自由迁徙和居住。
㈡人人有权离开任何国家,包括其本国在内,并有权返回他的国家。
第十四条
㈠人人有权在其他国家寻求和享受庇护以避免迫害。
㈡在真正由于非政治性的罪行或违背联合国的宗旨和原则的行为而被起诉的情况下,不得援用此种权利。
第十五条
㈠人人有权享有国籍。
㈡任何人的国籍不得任意剥夺,亦不得否认其改变国籍的权利。
第十六条
㈠成年男女,不受种族、国籍或宗教的任何限制有权婚嫁和成立家庭。他们在婚姻方面,在结婚期间和在解除婚约时,应有平等的权利。
㈡只有经男女双方的自由和完全的同意,才能缔婚。
㈢家庭是天然的和基本的社会单元,并应受社会和国家的保护。
第十七条
㈠人人得有单独的财产所有权以及同他人合有的所有权。
㈡任何人的财产不得任意剥夺。
第十八条 人人有思想、良心和宗教自由的权利;此项权利包括改变他的宗教或信仰的自由,以及单独或集体、公开或秘密地以教义、实践、礼拜和戒律表示他的宗教或信仰的自由。
第十九条 人人有权享有主张和发表意见的自由;此项权利包括持有主张而不受干涉的自由,和通过任何媒介和不论国界寻求、接受和传递消息和思想的自由。
第二十条
㈠人人有权享有和平集会和结社的自由。
㈡任何人不得迫使隶属于某一团体。
第二十一条
㈠人人有直接或通过自由选择的代表参与治理本国的权利。
㈡人人有平等机会参加本国公务的权利。
㈢人民的意志是政府权力的基础;这一意志应以定期的和真正的选举予以表现,而选举应依据普遍和平等的投票权,并以不记名投票或相当的自由投票程序进行。
第二十二条 每个人,作为社会的一员,有权享受社会保障,并有权享受他的个人尊严和人格的自由发展所必需的经济、社会和文化方面各种权利的实现,这种实现是通过国家努力和国际合作并依照各国的组织和资源情况。
第二十三条
㈠人人有权工作、自由选择职业、享受公正和合适的工作条件并享受免于失业的保障。
㈡人人有同工同酬的权利,不受任何歧视。
㈢每一个工作的人,有权享受公正和合适的报酬,保证使他本人和家属有一个符合人的生活条件,必要时并辅以其他方式的社会保障。
〔四〕人人有为维护其利益而组织和参加工会的权利。
第二十四条 人人有享有休息和闲暇的权利,包括工作时间有合理限制和定期给薪休假的权利。 第二十五条
㈠人人有权享受为维持他本人和家属的健康和福利所需的生活水准,包括食物、衣着、住房、医疗和必要的社会服务;在遭到失业、疾病、残废、守寡、衰老或在其他不能控制的情况下丧失谋生能力时,有权享受保障。
㈡母亲和儿童有权享受特别照顾和协助。一切儿童,无论婚生或非婚生,都应享受同样的社会保护。
第二十六条
㈠人人都有受教育的权利,教育应当免费,至少在初级和基本阶段应如此。初级教育应属义务性质。技术和职业教育应普遍设立。高等教育应根据成绩而对一切人平等开放。
㈡教育的目的在于充分发展人的个性并加强对人权和基本自由的尊重。教育应促进各国、各种族或各宗教集团间的了解、容忍和友谊,并应促进联合国维护和平的各项活动。
㈢父母对其子女所应受的教育的种类,有优先选择的权利。
第二十七条
㈠人人有权自由参加社会的文化生活,享受艺术,并分享科学进步及其产生的福利。
㈡人人对由于他所创作的任何科学、文学或美术作品而产生的精神的和物质的利益,有享受保护的权利。
第二十八条 人人有权要求一种社会的和国际的秩序,在这种秩序中,本宣言所载的权利和自由能获得充分实现。
第二十九条
㈠人人对社会负有义务,因为只有在社会中他的个性才可能得到自由和充分的发展。
㈡人人在行使他的权利和自由时,只受法律所确定的限制,确定此种限制的唯一目的在于保证对旁人的权利和自由给予应有的承认和尊重,并在一个民主的社会中适应道德、公共秩序和普遍福利的正当需要。
㈢这些权利和自由的行使,无论在任何情形下均不得违背联合国的宗旨和原则。
第三十条 本宣言的任何条文,不得解释为默许任何国家、集团或个人有权进行任何旨在破坏本宣言所载的任何权利和自由的活动或行为。
Universal Declaration of Human Rights Preamble Whereas recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world, Whereas disregard and contempt for human rights have resulted in barbarous acts which have outraged the conscience of mankind, and the advent of a world in which human beings shall enjoy freedom of speech and belief and freedom from fear and want has been proclaimed as the highest aspiration of the common people, Whereas it is essential, if man is not to be compelled to have recourse, as a last resort, to rebellion against tyranny and oppression, that human rights should be protected by the rule of law, Whereas it is essential to promote the development of friendly relations between nations, Whereas the peoples of the United Nations have in the Charter reaffirmed their faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person and in the equal rights of men and women and have determined to promote social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom, Whereas Member States have pledged themselves to achieve, in cooperation with the United Nations, the promotion of universal respect for and observance of human rights and fundamental freedoms, Whereas a common understanding of these rights and freedoms is of the greatest importance for the full realization of this pledge, Now, therefore, The General Assembly, Proclaims this Universal Declaration of Human Rights as a common standard of achievement for all peoples and all nations, to the end that every individual and every organ of society, keeping this Declaration constantly in mind, shall strive by teaching and education to promote respect for these rights and freedoms and by progressive measures, national and international, to secure their universal and effective recognition and observance, both among the peoples of Member States themselves and among the peoples of territories under their jurisdiction. Article 1 All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. Article 2 Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status. Furthermore, no distinction shall be made on the basis of the political, jurisdictional or international status of the country or territory to which a person belongs, whether it be independent, trust, non-self-governing or under any other limitation of sovereignty. Article 3 Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person. Article 4 No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave trade shall be prohibited in all their forms. Article 5 No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment. Article 6 Everyone has the right to recognition everywhere as a person before the law. Article 7 All are equal before the law and are entitled without any discrimination to equal protection of the law. All are entitled to equal protection against any discrimination in violation of this Declaration and against any incitement to such discrimination. Article 8 Everyone has the right to an effective remedy by the competent national tribunals for acts violating the fundamental rights granted him by the constitution or by law. Article 9 No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest, detention or exile. Article 10 Everyone is entitled in full equality to a fair and public hearing by an independent and impartial tribunal, in the determination of his rights and obligations and of any criminal charge against him. Article 11 Everyone charged with a penal offence has the right to be presumed innocent until proved guilty according to law in a public trial at which he has had all the guarantees necessary for his defence. No one shall be held guilty of any penal offence on account of any act or omission which did not constitute a penal offence, under national or international law, at the time when it was committed. Nor shall a heavier penalty be imposed than the one that was applicable at the time the penal offence was committed. Article 12 No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his privacy, family, home or correspondence, nor to attacks upon his honour and reputation. Everyone has the right to the protection of the law against such interference or attacks. Article 13 Everyone has the right to freedom of movement and residence within the borders of each State. Everyone has the right to leave any country, including his own, and to return to his country. Article 14 Everyone has the right to seek and to enjoy in other countries asylum from persecution. This right may not be invoked in the case of prosecutions genuinely arising from non-political crimes or from acts contrary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations. Article 15 Everyone has the right to a nationality. No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his nationality nor denied the right to change his nationality. Article 16 Men and women of full age, without any limitation due to race, nationality or religion, have the right to marry and to found a family. They are entitled to equal rights as to marriage, during marriage and at its dissolution. Marriage shall be entered into only with the free and full consent of the intending spouses. The family is the natural and fundamental group unit of society and is entitled to protection by society and the State. Article 17 Everyone has the right to own property alone as well as in association with others. No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his property. Article 18 Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship and observance. Article 19 Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers. Article 20 Everyone has the right to freedom of peaceful assembly and association. No one may be compelled to belong to an association. Article 21 Everyone has the right to take part in the government of his country, directly or through freely chosen representatives. Everyone has the right to equal access to public service in his country. The will of the people shall be the basis of the authority of government; this will shall be expressed in periodic and genuine elections which shall be by universal and equal suffrage and shall be held by secret vote or by equivalent free voting procedures. Article 22 Everyone, as a member of society, has the right to social security and is entitled to realization, through national effort and international co-operation and in accordance with the organization and resources of each State, of the economic, social and cultural rights indispensable for his dignity and the free development of his personality. Article 23 Everyone has the right to work, to free choice of employment, to just and favourable conditions of work and to protection against unemployment. Everyone, without any discrimination, has the right to equal pay for equal work. Everyone who works has the right to just and favourable remuneration ensuring for himself and his family an existence worthy of human dignity, and supplemented, if necessary, by other means of social protection. Everyone has the right to form and to join trade unions for the protection of his interests. Article 24 Everyone has the right to rest and leisure, including reasonable limitation of working hours and periodic holidays with pay. Article 25 Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of himself and of his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care and necessary social services, and the right to security in the event of unemployment, sickness, disability, widowhood, old age or other lack of livelihood in circumstances beyond his control. Motherhood and childhood are entitled to special care and assistance. All children, whether born in or out of wedlock, shall enjoy the same social protection. Article 26 Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory. Technical and professional education shall be made generally available and higher education shall be equally accessible to all on the basis of merit. Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and to the strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. It shall promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups, and shall further the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace. Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of education that shall be given to their children. Article 27 Everyone has the right freely to participate in the cultural life of the community, to enjoy the arts and to share in scientific advancement and its benefits. Everyone has the right to the protection of the moral and material interests resulting from any scientific, literary or artistic production of which he is the author. Article 28 Everyone is entitled to a social and international order in which the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration can be fully realized. Article 29 Everyone has duties to the community in which alone the free and full development of his personality is possible. In the exercise of his rights and freedoms, everyone shall be subject only to such limitations as are determined by law solely for the purpose of securing due recognition and respect for the rights and freedoms of others and of meeting the just requirements of morality, public order and the general welfare in a democratic society. These rights and freedoms may in no case be exercised contrary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations. Article 30 Nothing in this Declaration may be interpreted as implying for any State, group or person any right to engage in any activity or to perform any act aimed at the destruction of any of the rights and freedoms set forth herein.
法国《人权宣言》
1789年法国大革命爆发，封建贵族的王权被永远废除，确立人权和自由平等的制度，发布了《人权宣言》。
国民议会在主宰面前并在他的庇护之下确认并宣布下述的人与公民的权利：
第一条 在权利方面，人们生来是而且始终是自由平等的。只有在公共利用上面才显出社会上的差别。
第二条 任何政治结合的目的都在于保存人的自然的和不可动摇的权利。这些权利就是自由、财产、安全和反抗压迫。
第三条 整个主权的本原主要是寄托于国民。任何团体、任何个人都不得行使主权所未明白授予的权力。
第四条 自由就是指有权从事一切无害于他人的行为。因此，各人的自然权利的行使，只以保证社会上其他成员能享有同样权利为限制。此等限制仅得由法律规定之。
第五条 法律仅有权禁止有害于社会的行为。凡未经法律禁止的行为即不得受到妨碍，而且任何人都不得被迫从事法律所未规定的行为。
第六条 法律是公共意志的表现。全国公民都有权亲身或经由其代表去参与法律的制定。法律对于所有的人，无论是施行保护或处罚都是一样的。在法律面前，所有的公民都是平等的，故他们都能平等地按其能力担任一切官职，公共职位和职务，除德行或才能上的差别外，不得有其他差别。
第七条 除非在法律所规定的情况下并按照法律所指示的手续，不得控告、逮捕或拘留任何人。凡动议、发布、执行或令人执行专断命令者应受处罚；但根据法律而被传唤或被扣押的公民应当立即服从；抗拒则构成犯罪。
第八条 法律只应规定确实需要和显然不可少的刑罚，而且除非根据在犯法前已经制定和公布的且系依法施行的法律以外，不得处罚任何人。
第九条 任何人在其未被宣告为犯罪以前应被推定为无罪，即使认为必须予以逮捕，但为扣留其人身所不需要的各种残酷行为都应受到法律的严厉制裁。
第十条 意见的发表只要不扰乱法律所规定的公共秩序，任何人都不得因其意见，甚至信教的意见而遭受干涉。
第十一条 自由传达思想和意见是人类最宝贵的权利之一；因此，各个公民都有言论、著述和出版自由，但在法律所规定的情况下，应对滥用此项自由负担责任。
第十二条 人权的保障需要有武装力量；因此，这种力量是为了全体的利益而不是为了此种力量的受任人的个人利益而设立的。
第十三条 为了武装力量的维持和行政管理的支出，公共赋税就成为必不可少的；赋税应在全体公民之间按其能力作平等的分摊。
第十四条 所有公民都有权亲身或由其代表来确定赋税的必要性，自由地加以认可，注意其用途，决定税额、税率、客体、征收方式和时期。
第十五条 社会有权要求机关公务人员报告其工作。
第十六条 凡权利无保障和分权未确立的社会，就没有宪法。
第十七条 财产是神圣不可侵犯的权利，除非当合法认定的公共需要所显然必需时，且在公平而预先赔偿的条件下，任何人的财产不得受到剥夺。
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen（1789） The representatives of the French people， organized as a National Assembly， believing that the ignorance， neglect， or contempt of the rights of man are the sole cause of public calamities and of the corruption of governments， have determined to set forth in a solemn declaration the natural， unalienable， and sacred rights of man， in order that this declaration， being constantly before all the members of the Social body， shall remind them continually of their rights and duties； in order that the acts of the legislative power， as well as those of the executive power， may be compared at any moment with the objects and purposes of all political institutions and may thus be more respected， and， lastly， in order that the grievances of the citizens， based hereafter upon simple and incontestable principles， shall tend to the maintenance of the constitution and redound to the happiness of all. Therefore the National Assembly recognizes and proclaims， in the presence and under the auspices of the Supreme Being， the following rights of man and of the citizen： Articles： 1. Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions may be founded only upon the general good. 2. The aim of all political association is the preservation of the natural and imprescriptible rights of man. These rights are liberty， property， security， and resistance to oppression. 3. The principle of all sovereignty resides essentially in the nation. No body nor individual may exercise any authority which does not proceed directly from the nation. 4. Liberty consists in the freedom to do everything which injures no one else； hence the exercise of the natural rights of each man has no limits except those which assure to the other members of the society the enjoyment of the same rights. These limits can only be determined by law. 5. Law can only prohibit such actions as are hurtful to society. Nothing may be prevented which is not forbidden by law， and no one may be forced to do anything not provided for by law. 6. Law is the expression of the general will. Every citizen has a right to participate personally， or through his representative， in its foundation. It must be the same for all， whether it protects or punishes. All citizens， being equal in the eyes of the law， are equally eligible to all dignities and to all public positions and occupations， according to their abilities， and without distinction except that of their virtues and talents. 7. No person shall be accused， arrested， or imprisoned except in the cases and according to the forms prescribed by law. Any one soliciting， transmitting， executing， or causing to be executed， any arbitrary order， shall be punished. But any citizen summoned or arrested in virtue of the law shall submit without delay， as resistance constitutes an offense. 8. The law shall provide for such punishments only as are strictly and obviously necessary， and no one shall suffer punishment except it be legally inflicted in virtue of a law passed and promulgated before the commission of the offense. 9. As all persons are held innocent until they shall have been declared guilty， if arrest shall be deemed indispensable， all harshness not essential to the securing of the prisoners person shall be severely repressed by law. 10. No one shall be disquieted on account of his opinions， including his religious views， provided their manifestation does not disturb the public order established by law. 11. The free communication of ideas and opinions is one of the most precious of the rights of man. Every citizen may， accordingly， speak， write， and print with freedom， but shall be responsible for such abuses of this freedom as shall be defined by law. 12. The security of the rights of man and of the citizen requires public military forces. These forces are， therefore， established for the good of all and not for the personal advantage of those to whom they shall be intrusted. 13. A common contribution is essential for the maintenance of the public forces and for the cost of administration. This should be equitably distributed among all the citizens in proportion to their means. 14. All the citizens have a right to decide， either personally or by their representatives， as to the necessity of the public contribution； to grant this freely； to know to what uses it is put； and to fix the proportion， the mode of assessment and of collection and the duration of the taxes. 15. Society has the right to require of every public agent an account of his administration. 16. A society in which the observance of the law is not assured， nor the separation of powers defined， has no constitution at all. 17. Since property is an inviolable and sacred right， no one shall be deprived thereof except where public necessity， legally determined， shall clearly demand it， and then only on condition that the owner shall have been previously and equitably indemnified.
零八宪章 2008年12月10日公布
一、前言
今年是中国立宪百年，《世界人权宣言》公布60周年，“民主墙”诞生30周年，中国政府签署《公民权利和政治权利国际公约》10周年。在经历了长期的人权 灾难和艰难曲折的抗争历程之后，觉醒的中国公民日渐清楚地认识到，自由、平等、人权是人类共同的普世价值；民主、共和、宪政是现代政治的基本制度架构。抽 离了这些普世价值和基本政制架构的“现代化”，是剥夺人的权利、腐蚀人性、摧毁人的尊严的灾难过程。21世纪的中国将走向何方，是继续这种威权统治下的“ 现代化”，还是认同普世价值、融入主流文明、建立民主政体？这是一个不容回避的抉择。
19世纪中期的历史巨变，暴露了中国传统专制制度的腐朽，揭开了中华大地上“数千年未有之大变局”的序幕。洋务运动追求器物层面的进良，甲午战败再 次暴露了体制的过时；戊戌变法触及到制度层面的革新，终因顽固派的残酷镇压而归于失败；辛亥革命在表面上埋葬了延续2000多年的皇权制度，建立了亚洲第 一个共和国。囿于当时内忧外患的特定历史条件，共和政体只是昙花一现，专制主义旋即卷土重来。器物模仿和制度更新的失败，推动国人深入到对文化病根的反 思，遂有以“科学与民主”为旗帜的“五四”新文化运动，因内战频仍和外敌入侵，中国政治民主化历程被迫中断。抗日战争胜利后的中国再次开启了宪政历程，然 而国共内战的结果使中国陷入了现代极权主义的深渊。1949年建立的“新中国”，名义上是“人民共和国”，实质上是“党天下”。执政党垄断了所有政治、经 济和社会资源，制造了反右、大跃进、文革、六四、打压民间宗教活动与维权运动等一系列人权灾难，致使数千万人失去生命，国民和国家都付出了极为惨重的代 价。
二十世纪后期的“改革开放”，使中国摆脱了毛泽东时代的普遍贫困和绝对极权，民间财富和民众生活水平有了大幅度提高，个人的经济自由和社会权利得到 部分恢复，公民社会开始生长，民间对人权和政治自由的呼声日益高涨。执政者也在进行走向市场化和私有化的经济改革的同时，开始了从拒绝人权到逐渐承认人权 的转变。中国政府于1997年、1998年分别签署了两个重要的国际人权公约，全国人大于2004年通过修宪把“尊重和保障人权”写进宪法，今年又承诺制 订和推行《国家人权行动计划》。但是，这些政治进步迄今为止大多停留在纸面上；有法律而无法治，有宪法而无宪政，仍然是有目共睹的政治现实。执政集团继续 坚持维系威权统治，排拒政治变革，由此导致官场腐败，法治难立，人权不彰，道德沦丧，社会两极分化，经济畸形发展，自然环境和人文环境遭到双重破坏，公民 的自由、财产和追求幸福的权利得不到制度化的保障，各种社会矛盾不断积累，不满情绪持续高涨，特别是官民对立激化和群体事件激增，正在显示着灾难性的失控趋势，现行体制的落伍已经到了非改不可的地步。
二、我们的基本理念
当此决定中国未来命运的历史关头，有必要反思百年来的现代化历程，重申如下基本理念：
自由：自由是普世价值的核心之所在。言论、出版、信仰、集会、结社、迁徙、罢工和游行示威等权利都是自由的具体体现。自由不昌，则无现代文明可言。
人权：人权不是国家的赐予，而是每个人与生俱来就享有的权利。保障人权，既是政府的首要目标和公共权力合法性的基础，也是“以人为本”的内在要求。中国的历次政治灾难都与执政当局对人权的无视密切相关。人是国家的主体，国家服务于人民，政府为人民而存在。
平等：每一个个体的人，不论社会地位、职业、性别、经济状况、种族、肤色、宗教或政治信仰，其人格、尊严、自由都是平等的。必须落实法律面前人人平等的原则，落实公民的社会、经济、文化、政治权利平等的原则。
共和：共和就是“大家共治，和平共生”，就是分权制衡与利益平衡，就是多种利益成分、不同社会集团、多元文化与信仰追求的群体，在平等参与、公平竞争、共同议政的基础上，以和平的方式处理公共事务。
民主：最基本的涵义是主权在民和民选政府。民主具有如下基本特点：（1）政权的合法性来自人民，政治权力来源于人民；（2）政治统治经过人民选择，（3）公民享有真正的选举权，各级政府的主要政务官员必须通过定期的竞选产生。（4）尊重多数人的决定，同时保护少数人的基本人权。一句话，民主使政府成为“民有，民治，民享”的现代公器。
宪政：宪政是通过法律规定和法治来保障宪法确定的公民基本自由和权利的原则，限制并划定政府权力和行为的边界，并提供相应的制度设施。
在中国，帝国皇权的时代早已一去不复返了；在世界范围内，威权体制也日近黄昏；公民应该成为真正的国家主人。祛除依赖“明君”、“清官”的臣民意识，张扬权利为本、参与为责的公民意识，实践自由，躬行民主，尊奉法治，才是中国的根本出路。
三、我们的基本主张
藉此，我们本着负责任与建设性的公民精神对国家政制、公民权利与社会发展诸方面提出如下具体主张：
修改宪法：根据前述价值理念修改宪法，删除现行宪法中不符合主权在民原则的条文，使宪法真正成为人权的保证书和公共权力的许可状，成为任何个人、团体和党派不得违反的可以实施的最高法律，为中国民主化奠定法权基础。
分权制衡：构建分权制衡的现代政府，保证立法、司法、行政三权分立。确立法定行政和责任政府的原则，防止行政权力过分扩张；政府应对纳税人负责；在中央和地方之间建立分权与制衡制度，中央权力须由宪法明确界定授权，地方实行充分自治。
立法民主：各级立法机构由直选产生，立法秉持公平正义原则，实行立法民主。
司法独立：司法应超越党派、不受任何干预，实行司法独立，保障司法公正；设立宪法法院，建立违宪审查制度，维护宪法权威。尽早撤销严重危害国家法治的各级党的政法委员会，避免公器私用。
公器公用：实现军队国家化，军人应效忠于宪法，效忠于国家，政党组织应从军队中退出，提高军队职业化水平。包括警察在内的所有公务员应保持政治中立。消除公务员录用的党派歧视，应不分党派平等录用。
人权保障：切实保障人权，维护人的尊严。设立对最高民意机关负责的人权委员会，防止政府滥用公权侵犯人权，尤其要保障公民的人身自由，任何人不受非法逮捕、拘禁、传讯、审问、处罚，废除劳动教养制度。
公职选举：全面推行民主选举制度，落实一人一票的平等选举权。各级行政首长的直接选举应制度化地逐步推行。定期自由竞争选举和公民参选法定公共职务是不可剥夺的基本人权。
城乡平等：废除现行的城乡二元户籍制度，落实公民一律平等的宪法权利，保障公民的自由迁徙权。
结社自由：保障公民的结社自由权，将现行的社团登记审批制改为备案制。开放党禁，以宪法和法律规范政党行为，取消一党垄断执政特权，确立政党活动自由和公平竞争的原则，实现政党政治正常化和法制化。
集会自由：和平集会、游行、示威和表达自由，是宪法规定的公民基本自由，不应受到执政党和政府的非法干预与违宪限制。
言论自由：落实言论自由、出版自由和学术自由，保障公民的知情权和监督权。制订《新闻法》和《出版法》，开放报禁，废除现行《刑法》中的“煽动颠覆国家政权罪”条款，杜绝以言治罪。
宗教自由：保障宗教自由与信仰自由，实行政教分离，宗教信仰活动不受政府干预。审查并撤销限制或剥夺公民宗教自由的行政 法规、行政规章和地方性法规；禁止以行政立法管理宗教活动。废除宗教团体（包括宗教活动场所）必经登记始获合法地位的事先许可制度，代之以无须任何审查的 备案制。
公民教育：取消服务于一党统治、带有浓厚意识形态色彩的政治教育与政治考试，推广以普世价值和公民权利为本的公民教育，确立公民意识，倡导服务社会的公民美德。
财产保护：确立和保护私有财产权利，实行自由、开放的市场经济制度，保障创业自由，消除行政垄断；设立对最高民意机关负责的国有资产管理委员会，合法有序地展开产权改革，明晰产权归属和责任者；开展新土地运动，推进土地私有化，切实保障公民尤其是农民的土地所有权。
财税改革：确立民主财政和保障纳税人的权利。建立权责明确的公共财政制度构架和运行机制，建立各级政府合理有效的财政分 权体系；对赋税制度进行重大改革，以降低税率、简化税制、公平税负。非经社会公共选择过程，民意机关决议，行政部门不得随意加税、开征新税。通过产权改 革，引进多元市场主体和竞争机制，降低金融准入门槛，为发展民间金融创造条件，使金融体系充分发挥活力。
社会保障：建立覆盖全体国民的社会保障体制，使国民在教育、医疗、养老和就业等方面得到最基本的保障。
环境保护：保护生态环境，提倡可持续发展，为子孙后代和全人类负责；明确落实国家和各级官员必须为此承担的相应责任；发挥民间组织在环境保护中的参与和监督作用。
联邦共和：以平等、公正的态度参与维持地区和平与发展，塑造一个负责任的大国形象。维护香港、澳门的自由制度。在自由民主的前提下，通过平等谈判与合作互动的方式寻求海峡两岸和解方案。以大智慧探索各民族共同繁荣的可能途径和制度设计，在民主宪政的架构下建立中华联邦共和国。
转型正义：为历次政治运动中遭受政治迫害的人士及其家属，恢复名誉，给予国家赔偿；释放所有政治犯和良心犯，释放所有因信仰而获罪的人员；成立真相调查委员会，查清历史事件的真相，厘清责任，伸张正义；在此基础上寻求社会和解。
四、结语
中国作为世界大国，作为联合国安理会五个常任理事国之一和人权理事会的成员，理应为人类和平事业与人权进步做出自身的贡献。但令人遗憾的是，在当今 世界的所有大国里，唯独中国还处在威权主义政治生态中，并由此造成连绵不断的人权灾难和社会危机，束缚了中华民族的自身发展，制约了人类文明的进步——这 种局面必须改变！政治民主化变革不能再拖延下去。
为此，我们本着勇于践行的公民精神，公布《零八宪章》。我们希望所有具有同样危机感、责任感和使命感的中国公民，不分朝野，不论身份，求同存异，积 极参与到公民运动中来，共同推动中国社会的伟大变革，以期早日建成一个自由、民主、宪政的国家，实现国人百余年来锲而不舍的追求与梦想。
美国《独立宣言》 (中英文对照)
在人类事务发展的过程中，当一个民族必须解除同另一个民族的联系，并按照自然法则和上帝的旨意，以独立平等的身份立于世界列国之林时，出于对人类舆论的尊重，必须把驱使他们独立的原因予以宣布。
我们认为下述真理是不言而喻的：人人生而平等，造物主赋予他们若干不可让与的权利，其中包括生存权、自由权和追求幸福的权利。为了保障这些权利，人们才在他们中间建立政府，而政府的正当权利，则是经被统治者同意授予的。任何形式的政府一旦对这些目标的实现起破坏作用时，人民便有权予以更换或废除，以建立一个新的政府。新政府所依据的原则和组织其权利的方式，务使人民认为唯有这样才最有可能使他们获得安全和幸福。若真要审慎的来说，成立多年的政府是不应当由于无关紧要的和一时的原因而予以更换的。过去的一切经验都说明，任何苦难，只要尚能忍受，人类还是情愿忍受，也不想为申冤而废除他们久已习惯了的政府形式。然而，当始终追求同一目标的一系列滥用职权和强取豪夺的行为表明政府企图把人民至于专制暴政之下时，人民就有权也有义务去推翻这样的政府，并为其未来的安全提供新的保障。这就是这些殖民地过去忍受苦难的经过，也是他们现在不得不改变政府制度的原因。当今大不列颠王国的历史，就是屡屡伤害和掠夺这些殖民地的历史，其直接目标就是要在各州之上建立一个独裁暴政。为了证明上述句句属实，现将事实公诸于世，让公正的世人作出评判。
他拒绝批准对公众利益最有益、最必需的法律。
他禁止他的殖民总督批准刻不容缓、极端重要的法律，要不就先行搁置这些法律直至征得他的同意，而这些法律被搁置以后，他又完全置之不理。
他拒绝批准便利大地区人民的其他的法律，除非这些地区的人民情愿放弃自己在自己在立法机构中的代表权；而代表权对人民是无比珍贵的，只有暴君才畏惧它。
他把各州的立法委员召集到一个异乎寻常、极不舒适而有远离他们的档案库的地方去开会，其目的无非是使他们疲惫不堪，被迫就范。
他一再解散各州的众议院，因为后者坚决反对他侵犯人民的权利。
他在解散众议院之后，又长期拒绝另选他人，于是这项不可剥夺的立法权便归由普通人民来行使，致使在这其间各州仍处于外敌入侵和内部骚乱的种种危险之中。
他力图阻止各州增加人口，为此目的，他阻挠外国人入籍法的通过，拒绝批准其他鼓励移民的法律，并提高分配新土地的条件。
他拒绝批准建立司法权利的法律，以阻挠司法的执行。
他迫使法官为了保住任期、薪金的数额和支付而置于他个人意志的支配之下。
他滥设新官署，委派大批官员到这里骚扰我们的人民，吞噬他们的财物。
他在和平时期，未经我们立法机构同意，就在我们中间维持其常备军。
他施加影响，使军队独立于文官政权之外，并凌驾于文官政权之上。
他同他人勾结，把我们置于一种既不符合我们的法规也未经我们法律承认的管辖之下，而且还批准他们炮制的各种伪法案，以便任其在我们中间驻扎大批武装部队；不论这些人对我们各州居民犯下何等严重的谋杀罪，他可用加审判来庇护他们，让他们逍遥法外；他可以切断我们同世界各地的贸易；未经我们同意便向我们强行征税；在许多案件中剥夺我们享有陪审制的权益；以莫须有的罪名把我们押送海外受审；他在一个邻省废除了英国法律的自由制度，在那里建立专制政府，扩大其疆域，使其立即成为一个样板和合适的工具，以便向这里各殖民地推行同样的专制统治；他取消我们的许多特许状，废除我们最珍贵的法律并从根本上改变我们各州政府的形式；他终止我们立法机构行使权力，宣称他们自己拥有在任何情况下为我们制定法律的权力。
他们放弃设在这里的政府，宣称我们已不属他们保护之列，并向我们发动战争。
他在我们的海域里大肆掠夺，蹂躏我们的沿海地区，烧毁我们的城镇，残害我们人民的生命。
他此时正在运送大批外国雇佣兵，来从事其制造死亡、荒凉和暴政的勾当，其残忍与卑劣从一开始就连最野蛮的时代也难以相比，他已完全不配当一个文明国家的元首。
他强迫我们在公海被他们俘虏的同胞拿起武器反对自己的国家，使他们成为残杀自己亲友的刽子手，或使他们死于自己亲友的手下。
他在我们中间煽动内乱，并竭力挑唆残酷无情的印地安蛮子来对付我们边疆的居民，而众所周知，印地安人作战的准则是不分男女老幼、是非曲直，格杀勿论。
在遭受这些压迫的每一阶段，我们都曾以最谦卑的言辞吁请予以纠正。而我们一次又一次的情愿，却只是被报以一次又一次的伤害。
一个君主，其品格被他的每一个只有暴君才干的出的行为所暴露时，就不配君临自由的人民。
我们并不是没有想到我们英国的弟兄。他们的立法机关想把无理的管辖权扩展到我们这里来，我们时常把这个企图通知他们。我们也曾把我们移民来这里和在这里定居的情况告诉他们。我们曾恳求他们天生的正义感和雅量，念在同种同宗的分上，弃绝这些掠夺行为，因为这些掠夺行为难免会使我们之间的关系和来往中断。可他们对这种正义和同宗的呼声也同样充耳不闻。因此，我们不得不宣布脱离他们，以对待世界上其他民族的态度对待他们：同我交战者，就是敌人；同我和好者，即为朋友。
因此我们这些在大陆会议上集会的美利坚合众国的代表们，以各殖民地善良人民的名义，并经他们授权，向世界最高裁判者申诉，说明我们的严重意向，同时郑重宣布：
我们这些联合起来的殖民地现在是，而且按公理也应该是，独立自由的国家；我们对英国王室效忠的全部义务，我们与大不列颠王国之间大不列颠一切政治联系全部断绝，而且必须断绝。
作为一个独立自由的国家，我们完全有权宣战、缔和、结盟、通商和采取独立国家有权采取的一切行动。
我们坚定地信赖神明上帝的保佑，同时以我们的生命、财产和神圣的名誉彼此宣誓来支持这一宣言。
〔说明〕
杰斐逊起草了《独立宣言》的第一稿，富兰克林等人又进行了润色。大陆会议对此稿又进行了长时间的、激烈的辩论，最终作出了重大的修改。特别是在佐治亚和卡罗来纳代表们的坚持下，删去了杰斐逊对英王乔治三世允许在殖民地保持奴隶制和奴隶买卖的有力谴责。这一部分的原文是这样的：
他的人性本身发动了残酷的战争，侵犯了一个从未冒犯过他的远方民族的最神圣的生存权和自由权；他诱骗他们，并把他们运往另一半球充当奴隶，或使他们惨死在运送途中。
托马斯。杰斐逊（1743-1826），生于弗吉尼亚的一个富裕家庭。曾就读于威廉-玛丽学院。1767年成为律师，1769年当选为弗吉尼亚下院议院。他积极投身于独立运动之中，并代表弗吉尼亚出席大陆会议。他曾两次当选弗吉尼亚州长。1800年当选美国总统。
杰斐逊在为自己的墓碑而作的墓志铭中这样写到：
这里埋葬着托马斯。杰斐逊，美国《独立宣言》的作者，弗吉尼亚宗教自由法规的制定者和弗吉尼亚大学之父。
The Declaration of Independence
IN CONGRESS, JULY 4,
1776 THE UNANIMOUS
DECLARATION OF THE
THIRTEEN UNITED
STATES OF AMERAICA
When in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the laws Nature and Nature’s God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.
We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights, that they are among these are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. That to secure these rights, governments are instituted among them, deriving their just power from the consent of the governed. That whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shown that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than t right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such government, and to provide new guards for their future security. Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now the necessity, which constrains them to alter their former systems of government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is usurpations, all having in direct object tyranny over these States. To prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world.
He has refused his assent to laws, the most wholesome and necessary for the public good.
He has forbidden his Governors to pass laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend them.
He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of representation in the Legislature, a right inestimable to them and formidable to tyrants only.
He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their public records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures.]
He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for opposing with manly firmness his invasion on the rights of the people.
He has refused for a long time, after such dissolution, to cause others to be elected ; whereby the legislative powers, incapable of annihilation, have returned to the people at large for their exercise; the State remaining in the meantime exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without and convulsion within.
He has endeavored to prevent the population of these states; for that purpose obstructing the laws of naturalizing of foreigners; refusing to pass others to encourage their migration hither, and raising the condition of new appropriations of lands.
He has obstructed the administration of justice, by refusing his assent of laws for establishing judiciary powers.
He has made judges dependent on his will alone, for the tenure of their office, and the amount and payment of their salary.
He has erected a multitude of new officers, and sent hither swarms of officers to harass our people, and eat out our substances.
He has kept among us, in times of peace, standing armies without the consent of our legislatures.
He has affected to render the military independent of and superior to the civil power.
He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his assent to their acts of pretended legislation.
For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us;
For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for any murder which they should commit on the inhabitants of these States.
For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world;
For imposing taxes on us without our consent;
For depriving us in many cases, of the benefits of trial by jury;
For transporting us beyond seas to be tried for pretended offenses;
For abolishing the free systems of English laws in a neighboring Province, establishing therein an arbitrary government, and enlarging its boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule these Colonies;
For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, and altering fundamentally the forms of our governments;
For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever.
He has abdicated government here, by declaring us out of his protection and waging war against us.
He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people.
He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries to complete the works of death, desolation and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely parallel in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the head of a civilized nation.
He has constrained our fellow citizens taken captive on the high seas to bear arms against their country, to become the executioners of their friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands.
He has excited domestic insurrection amongst us, and has endeavored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian savages, whose known rule of warfare, is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes, and conditions.
In every stage of these oppressions we have petitioned for redress in the most humble terms: our repeated petition have been answered only by repeated injury. A prince whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a tyrant is unfit to be the ruler of a free people.
Nor have we been wanting in attention to our British brethren. We have warned them from time to time of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpation, which would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our separation, and hold them., as we hold the rest of mankind, enemies in war, in peace friends.
We, therefore, the Representatives of the United States of America, in General Congress assembled , appealing to the supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name, and by authority of the good people of these Colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these United States Colonies and Independent States; that they are absolved by from all allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State, they have full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, and to do all other acts and things which Independent States may of right do. And for the support of this declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor
世界人权宣言（中英文）
1948年的12月10日，联合国大会第217A(III)号决议通过并颁布了《世界人权宣言》。作为第一个关于人权的专门性国际文件，大会要求所有会员国广为宣传，并且“不分国家或领土的政治地位,主要在各级学校和其他教育机构加以传播、展示、阅读和阐述。”《世界人权宣言》对于推动世界人权事业的进步和发展作出了不可磨灭的贡献，成为世界人权史上的一个重要里程碑。
《世界人权宣言》
序言
鉴于对人类家庭所有成员的固有尊严及其平等的和不移的权利的承认,乃是世界自由、正义与和平的基础, 鉴于对人权的无视和侮蔑已发展为野蛮暴行,这些暴行玷污了人类的良心,而一个人人享有言论和信仰自由并免予恐惧和匮乏的世界的来临,已被宣布为普通人民的最高愿望, 鉴于为使人类不致迫不得已铤而走险对暴政和压迫进行反叛,有必要使人权受法治的保护, 鉴于有必要促进各国间友好关系的发展, 鉴于各联合国国家的人民已在联合国宪章中重申他们对基本人权、人格尊严和价值以及男女平等权利的信念,并决心促成较大自由中的社会进步和生活水平的改善, 鉴于各会员国业已誓愿同联合国合作以促进对人权和基本自由的普遍尊重和遵行, 鉴于对这些权利和自由的普遍了解对于这个誓愿的充分实现具有很大的重要性, 因此现在,大会,发布这一世界人权宣言,作为所有人民和所有国家努力实现的共同标准,以期每一个人和社会机构经常铭念本宣言,努力通过教诲和教育促进对权利和自由的尊重,并通过国家的和国际的渐进措施,使这些权利和自由在各会员国本身人民及在其管辖下领土的人民中得到普遍和有效的承认和遵行; 第一条 人人生而自由,在尊严和权利上一律平等。他们赋有理性和良心,并应以兄弟关系的精神相对待。
第二条 人人有资格享有本宣言所载的一切权利和自由,不分种族、肤色、性别、语言、宗教、政治或其他见解、国籍或社会出身、财产、出生或其他身分等任何区别。 并且不得因一人所属的国家或领土的政治的、行政的或者国际的地位之不同而有所区别,无论该领土是独立领土、托管领土、非自治领土或者处于其他任何主权受限制的情况之下。
第三条 人人有权享有生命、自由和人身安全。
第四条 任何人不得使为奴隶或奴役;一切形式的奴隶制度和奴隶买卖,均应予以禁止。
第五条 任何人不得加以酷刑,或施以残忍的、不人道的或侮辱性的待遇或刑罚。
第六条 人人在任何地方有权被承认在法律前的人格。
第七条 法律之前人人平等,并有权享受法律的平等保护,不受任何歧视。人人有权享受平等保护,以免受违反本宣言的任何歧视行为以及煽动这种歧视的任何行为之害。
第八条 任何人当宪法或法律所赋予他的基本权利遭受侵害时,有权由合格的国家法庭对这种侵害行为作有效的补救。
第九条 任何人不得加以任意逮捕、拘禁或放逐。
第十条 人人完全平等地有权由一个独立而无偏倚的法庭进行公正的和公开的审讯,以确定他的权利和义务并判定对他提出的任何刑事指控。
第十一条
㈠凡受刑事控告者,在未经获得辩护上所需的一切保证的公开审判而依法证实有罪以前,有权被视为无罪。
㈡任何人的任何行为或不行为,在其发生时依国家法或国际法均不构成刑事罪者,不得被判为犯有刑事罪。刑罚不得重于犯罪时适用的法律规定。
第十二条 任何人的私生活、家庭、住宅和通信不得任意干涉,他的荣誉和名誉不得加以攻击。人人有权享受法律保护,以免受这种干涉或攻击。
第十三条
㈠人人在各国境内有权自由迁徙和居住。
㈡人人有权离开任何国家,包括其本国在内,并有权返回他的国家。
第十四条
㈠人人有权在其他国家寻求和享受庇护以避免迫害。
㈡在真正由于非政治性的罪行或违背联合国的宗旨和原则的行为而被起诉的情况下,不得援用此种权利。
第十五条
㈠人人有权享有国籍。
㈡任何人的国籍不得任意剥夺,亦不得否认其改变国籍的权利。
第十六条
㈠成年男女,不受种族、国籍或宗教的任何限制有权婚嫁和成立家庭。他们在婚姻方面,在结婚期间和在解除婚约时,应有平等的权利。
㈡只有经男女双方的自由和完全的同意,才能缔婚。
㈢家庭是天然的和基本的社会单元,并应受社会和国家的保护。
第十七条
㈠人人得有单独的财产所有权以及同他人合有的所有权。
㈡任何人的财产不得任意剥夺。
第十八条 人人有思想、良心和宗教自由的权利;此项权利包括改变他的宗教或信仰的自由,以及单独或集体、公开或秘密地以教义、实践、礼拜和戒律表示他的宗教或信仰的自由。
第十九条 人人有权享有主张和发表意见的自由;此项权利包括持有主张而不受干涉的自由,和通过任何媒介和不论国界寻求、接受和传递消息和思想的自由。
第二十条
㈠人人有权享有和平集会和结社的自由。
㈡任何人不得迫使隶属于某一团体。
第二十一条
㈠人人有直接或通过自由选择的代表参与治理本国的权利。
㈡人人有平等机会参加本国公务的权利。
㈢人民的意志是政府权力的基础;这一意志应以定期的和真正的选举予以表现,而选举应依据普遍和平等的投票权,并以不记名投票或相当的自由投票程序进行。
第二十二条 每个人,作为社会的一员,有权享受社会保障,并有权享受他的个人尊严和人格的自由发展所必需的经济、社会和文化方面各种权利的实现,这种实现是通过国家努力和国际合作并依照各国的组织和资源情况。
第二十三条
㈠人人有权工作、自由选择职业、享受公正和合适的工作条件并享受免于失业的保障。
㈡人人有同工同酬的权利,不受任何歧视。
㈢每一个工作的人,有权享受公正和合适的报酬,保证使他本人和家属有一个符合人的生活条件,必要时并辅以其他方式的社会保障。
〔四〕人人有为维护其利益而组织和参加工会的权利。
第二十四条 人人有享有休息和闲暇的权利,包括工作时间有合理限制和定期给薪休假的权利。 第二十五条
㈠人人有权享受为维持他本人和家属的健康和福利所需的生活水准,包括食物、衣着、住房、医疗和必要的社会服务;在遭到失业、疾病、残废、守寡、衰老或在其他不能控制的情况下丧失谋生能力时,有权享受保障。
㈡母亲和儿童有权享受特别照顾和协助。一切儿童,无论婚生或非婚生,都应享受同样的社会保护。
第二十六条
㈠人人都有受教育的权利,教育应当免费,至少在初级和基本阶段应如此。初级教育应属义务性质。技术和职业教育应普遍设立。高等教育应根据成绩而对一切人平等开放。
㈡教育的目的在于充分发展人的个性并加强对人权和基本自由的尊重。教育应促进各国、各种族或各宗教集团间的了解、容忍和友谊,并应促进联合国维护和平的各项活动。
㈢父母对其子女所应受的教育的种类,有优先选择的权利。
第二十七条
㈠人人有权自由参加社会的文化生活,享受艺术,并分享科学进步及其产生的福利。
㈡人人对由于他所创作的任何科学、文学或美术作品而产生的精神的和物质的利益,有享受保护的权利。
第二十八条 人人有权要求一种社会的和国际的秩序,在这种秩序中,本宣言所载的权利和自由能获得充分实现。
第二十九条
㈠人人对社会负有义务,因为只有在社会中他的个性才可能得到自由和充分的发展。
㈡人人在行使他的权利和自由时,只受法律所确定的限制,确定此种限制的唯一目的在于保证对旁人的权利和自由给予应有的承认和尊重,并在一个民主的社会中适应道德、公共秩序和普遍福利的正当需要。
㈢这些权利和自由的行使,无论在任何情形下均不得违背联合国的宗旨和原则。
第三十条 本宣言的任何条文,不得解释为默许任何国家、集团或个人有权进行任何旨在破坏本宣言所载的任何权利和自由的活动或行为。
Universal Declaration of Human Rights Preamble Whereas recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world, Whereas disregard and contempt for human rights have resulted in barbarous acts which have outraged the conscience of mankind, and the advent of a world in which human beings shall enjoy freedom of speech and belief and freedom from fear and want has been proclaimed as the highest aspiration of the common people, Whereas it is essential, if man is not to be compelled to have recourse, as a last resort, to rebellion against tyranny and oppression, that human rights should be protected by the rule of law, Whereas it is essential to promote the development of friendly relations between nations, Whereas the peoples of the United Nations have in the Charter reaffirmed their faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person and in the equal rights of men and women and have determined to promote social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom, Whereas Member States have pledged themselves to achieve, in cooperation with the United Nations, the promotion of universal respect for and observance of human rights and fundamental freedoms, Whereas a common understanding of these rights and freedoms is of the greatest importance for the full realization of this pledge, Now, therefore, The General Assembly, Proclaims this Universal Declaration of Human Rights as a common standard of achievement for all peoples and all nations, to the end that every individual and every organ of society, keeping this Declaration constantly in mind, shall strive by teaching and education to promote respect for these rights and freedoms and by progressive measures, national and international, to secure their universal and effective recognition and observance, both among the peoples of Member States themselves and among the peoples of territories under their jurisdiction. Article 1 All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. Article 2 Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status. Furthermore, no distinction shall be made on the basis of the political, jurisdictional or international status of the country or territory to which a person belongs, whether it be independent, trust, non-self-governing or under any other limitation of sovereignty. Article 3 Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person. Article 4 No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave trade shall be prohibited in all their forms. Article 5 No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment. Article 6 Everyone has the right to recognition everywhere as a person before the law. Article 7 All are equal before the law and are entitled without any discrimination to equal protection of the law. All are entitled to equal protection against any discrimination in violation of this Declaration and against any incitement to such discrimination. Article 8 Everyone has the right to an effective remedy by the competent national tribunals for acts violating the fundamental rights granted him by the constitution or by law. Article 9 No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest, detention or exile. Article 10 Everyone is entitled in full equality to a fair and public hearing by an independent and impartial tribunal, in the determination of his rights and obligations and of any criminal charge against him. Article 11 Everyone charged with a penal offence has the right to be presumed innocent until proved guilty according to law in a public trial at which he has had all the guarantees necessary for his defence. No one shall be held guilty of any penal offence on account of any act or omission which did not constitute a penal offence, under national or international law, at the time when it was committed. Nor shall a heavier penalty be imposed than the one that was applicable at the time the penal offence was committed. Article 12 No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his privacy, family, home or correspondence, nor to attacks upon his honour and reputation. Everyone has the right to the protection of the law against such interference or attacks. Article 13 Everyone has the right to freedom of movement and residence within the borders of each State. Everyone has the right to leave any country, including his own, and to return to his country. Article 14 Everyone has the right to seek and to enjoy in other countries asylum from persecution. This right may not be invoked in the case of prosecutions genuinely arising from non-political crimes or from acts contrary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations. Article 15 Everyone has the right to a nationality. No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his nationality nor denied the right to change his nationality. Article 16 Men and women of full age, without any limitation due to race, nationality or religion, have the right to marry and to found a family. They are entitled to equal rights as to marriage, during marriage and at its dissolution. Marriage shall be entered into only with the free and full consent of the intending spouses. The family is the natural and fundamental group unit of society and is entitled to protection by society and the State. Article 17 Everyone has the right to own property alone as well as in association with others. No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his property. Article 18 Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship and observance. Article 19 Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers. Article 20 Everyone has the right to freedom of peaceful assembly and association. No one may be compelled to belong to an association. Article 21 Everyone has the right to take part in the government of his country, directly or through freely chosen representatives. Everyone has the right to equal access to public service in his country. The will of the people shall be the basis of the authority of government; this will shall be expressed in periodic and genuine elections which shall be by universal and equal suffrage and shall be held by secret vote or by equivalent free voting procedures. Article 22 Everyone, as a member of society, has the right to social security and is entitled to realization, through national effort and international co-operation and in accordance with the organization and resources of each State, of the economic, social and cultural rights indispensable for his dignity and the free development of his personality. Article 23 Everyone has the right to work, to free choice of employment, to just and favourable conditions of work and to protection against unemployment. Everyone, without any discrimination, has the right to equal pay for equal work. Everyone who works has the right to just and favourable remuneration ensuring for himself and his family an existence worthy of human dignity, and supplemented, if necessary, by other means of social protection. Everyone has the right to form and to join trade unions for the protection of his interests. Article 24 Everyone has the right to rest and leisure, including reasonable limitation of working hours and periodic holidays with pay. Article 25 Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of himself and of his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care and necessary social services, and the right to security in the event of unemployment, sickness, disability, widowhood, old age or other lack of livelihood in circumstances beyond his control. Motherhood and childhood are entitled to special care and assistance. All children, whether born in or out of wedlock, shall enjoy the same social protection. Article 26 Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory. Technical and professional education shall be made generally available and higher education shall be equally accessible to all on the basis of merit. Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and to the strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. It shall promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups, and shall further the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace. Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of education that shall be given to their children. Article 27 Everyone has the right freely to participate in the cultural life of the community, to enjoy the arts and to share in scientific advancement and its benefits. Everyone has the right to the protection of the moral and material interests resulting from any scientific, literary or artistic production of which he is the author. Article 28 Everyone is entitled to a social and international order in which the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration can be fully realized. Article 29 Everyone has duties to the community in which alone the free and full development of his personality is possible. In the exercise of his rights and freedoms, everyone shall be subject only to such limitations as are determined by law solely for the purpose of securing due recognition and respect for the rights and freedoms of others and of meeting the just requirements of morality, public order and the general welfare in a democratic society. These rights and freedoms may in no case be exercised contrary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations. Article 30 Nothing in this Declaration may be interpreted as implying for any State, group or person any right to engage in any activity or to perform any act aimed at the destruction of any of the rights and freedoms set forth herein.
法国《人权宣言》
1789年法国大革命爆发，封建贵族的王权被永远废除，确立人权和自由平等的制度，发布了《人权宣言》。
国民议会在主宰面前并在他的庇护之下确认并宣布下述的人与公民的权利：
第一条 在权利方面，人们生来是而且始终是自由平等的。只有在公共利用上面才显出社会上的差别。
第二条 任何政治结合的目的都在于保存人的自然的和不可动摇的权利。这些权利就是自由、财产、安全和反抗压迫。
第三条 整个主权的本原主要是寄托于国民。任何团体、任何个人都不得行使主权所未明白授予的权力。
第四条 自由就是指有权从事一切无害于他人的行为。因此，各人的自然权利的行使，只以保证社会上其他成员能享有同样权利为限制。此等限制仅得由法律规定之。
第五条 法律仅有权禁止有害于社会的行为。凡未经法律禁止的行为即不得受到妨碍，而且任何人都不得被迫从事法律所未规定的行为。
第六条 法律是公共意志的表现。全国公民都有权亲身或经由其代表去参与法律的制定。法律对于所有的人，无论是施行保护或处罚都是一样的。在法律面前，所有的公民都是平等的，故他们都能平等地按其能力担任一切官职，公共职位和职务，除德行或才能上的差别外，不得有其他差别。
第七条 除非在法律所规定的情况下并按照法律所指示的手续，不得控告、逮捕或拘留任何人。凡动议、发布、执行或令人执行专断命令者应受处罚；但根据法律而被传唤或被扣押的公民应当立即服从；抗拒则构成犯罪。
第八条 法律只应规定确实需要和显然不可少的刑罚，而且除非根据在犯法前已经制定和公布的且系依法施行的法律以外，不得处罚任何人。
第九条 任何人在其未被宣告为犯罪以前应被推定为无罪，即使认为必须予以逮捕，但为扣留其人身所不需要的各种残酷行为都应受到法律的严厉制裁。
第十条 意见的发表只要不扰乱法律所规定的公共秩序，任何人都不得因其意见，甚至信教的意见而遭受干涉。
第十一条 自由传达思想和意见是人类最宝贵的权利之一；因此，各个公民都有言论、著述和出版自由，但在法律所规定的情况下，应对滥用此项自由负担责任。
第十二条 人权的保障需要有武装力量；因此，这种力量是为了全体的利益而不是为了此种力量的受任人的个人利益而设立的。
第十三条 为了武装力量的维持和行政管理的支出，公共赋税就成为必不可少的；赋税应在全体公民之间按其能力作平等的分摊。
第十四条 所有公民都有权亲身或由其代表来确定赋税的必要性，自由地加以认可，注意其用途，决定税额、税率、客体、征收方式和时期。
第十五条 社会有权要求机关公务人员报告其工作。
第十六条 凡权利无保障和分权未确立的社会，就没有宪法。
第十七条 财产是神圣不可侵犯的权利，除非当合法认定的公共需要所显然必需时，且在公平而预先赔偿的条件下，任何人的财产不得受到剥夺。
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen（1789） The representatives of the French people， organized as a National Assembly， believing that the ignorance， neglect， or contempt of the rights of man are the sole cause of public calamities and of the corruption of governments， have determined to set forth in a solemn declaration the natural， unalienable， and sacred rights of man， in order that this declaration， being constantly before all the members of the Social body， shall remind them continually of their rights and duties； in order that the acts of the legislative power， as well as those of the executive power， may be compared at any moment with the objects and purposes of all political institutions and may thus be more respected， and， lastly， in order that the grievances of the citizens， based hereafter upon simple and incontestable principles， shall tend to the maintenance of the constitution and redound to the happiness of all. Therefore the National Assembly recognizes and proclaims， in the presence and under the auspices of the Supreme Being， the following rights of man and of the citizen： Articles： 1. Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions may be founded only upon the general good. 2. The aim of all political association is the preservation of the natural and imprescriptible rights of man. These rights are liberty， property， security， and resistance to oppression. 3. The principle of all sovereignty resides essentially in the nation. No body nor individual may exercise any authority which does not proceed directly from the nation. 4. Liberty consists in the freedom to do everything which injures no one else； hence the exercise of the natural rights of each man has no limits except those which assure to the other members of the society the enjoyment of the same rights. These limits can only be determined by law. 5. Law can only prohibit such actions as are hurtful to society. Nothing may be prevented which is not forbidden by law， and no one may be forced to do anything not provided for by law. 6. Law is the expression of the general will. Every citizen has a right to participate personally， or through his representative， in its foundation. It must be the same for all， whether it protects or punishes. All citizens， being equal in the eyes of the law， are equally eligible to all dignities and to all public positions and occupations， according to their abilities， and without distinction except that of their virtues and talents. 7. No person shall be accused， arrested， or imprisoned except in the cases and according to the forms prescribed by law. Any one soliciting， transmitting， executing， or causing to be executed， any arbitrary order， shall be punished. But any citizen summoned or arrested in virtue of the law shall submit without delay， as resistance constitutes an offense. 8. The law shall provide for such punishments only as are strictly and obviously necessary， and no one shall suffer punishment except it be legally inflicted in virtue of a law passed and promulgated before the commission of the offense. 9. As all persons are held innocent until they shall have been declared guilty， if arrest shall be deemed indispensable， all harshness not essential to the securing of the prisoners person shall be severely repressed by law. 10. No one shall be disquieted on account of his opinions， including his religious views， provided their manifestation does not disturb the public order established by law. 11. The free communication of ideas and opinions is one of the most precious of the rights of man. Every citizen may， accordingly， speak， write， and print with freedom， but shall be responsible for such abuses of this freedom as shall be defined by law. 12. The security of the rights of man and of the citizen requires public military forces. These forces are， therefore， established for the good of all and not for the personal advantage of those to whom they shall be intrusted. 13. A common contribution is essential for the maintenance of the public forces and for the cost of administration. This should be equitably distributed among all the citizens in proportion to their means. 14. All the citizens have a right to decide， either personally or by their representatives， as to the necessity of the public contribution； to grant this freely； to know to what uses it is put； and to fix the proportion， the mode of assessment and of collection and the duration of the taxes. 15. Society has the right to require of every public agent an account of his administration. 16. A society in which the observance of the law is not assured， nor the separation of powers defined， has no constitution at all. 17. Since property is an inviolable and sacred right， no one shall be deprived thereof except where public necessity， legally determined， shall clearly demand it， and then only on condition that the owner shall have been previously and equitably indemnified.
零八宪章 2008年12月10日公布
一、前言
今年是中国立宪百年，《世界人权宣言》公布60周年，“民主墙”诞生30周年，中国政府签署《公民权利和政治权利国际公约》10周年。在经历了长期的人权 灾难和艰难曲折的抗争历程之后，觉醒的中国公民日渐清楚地认识到，自由、平等、人权是人类共同的普世价值；民主、共和、宪政是现代政治的基本制度架构。抽 离了这些普世价值和基本政制架构的“现代化”，是剥夺人的权利、腐蚀人性、摧毁人的尊严的灾难过程。21世纪的中国将走向何方，是继续这种威权统治下的“ 现代化”，还是认同普世价值、融入主流文明、建立民主政体？这是一个不容回避的抉择。
19世纪中期的历史巨变，暴露了中国传统专制制度的腐朽，揭开了中华大地上“数千年未有之大变局”的序幕。洋务运动追求器物层面的进良，甲午战败再 次暴露了体制的过时；戊戌变法触及到制度层面的革新，终因顽固派的残酷镇压而归于失败；辛亥革命在表面上埋葬了延续2000多年的皇权制度，建立了亚洲第 一个共和国。囿于当时内忧外患的特定历史条件，共和政体只是昙花一现，专制主义旋即卷土重来。器物模仿和制度更新的失败，推动国人深入到对文化病根的反 思，遂有以“科学与民主”为旗帜的“五四”新文化运动，因内战频仍和外敌入侵，中国政治民主化历程被迫中断。抗日战争胜利后的中国再次开启了宪政历程，然 而国共内战的结果使中国陷入了现代极权主义的深渊。1949年建立的“新中国”，名义上是“人民共和国”，实质上是“党天下”。执政党垄断了所有政治、经 济和社会资源，制造了反右、大跃进、文革、六四、打压民间宗教活动与维权运动等一系列人权灾难，致使数千万人失去生命，国民和国家都付出了极为惨重的代 价。
二十世纪后期的“改革开放”，使中国摆脱了毛泽东时代的普遍贫困和绝对极权，民间财富和民众生活水平有了大幅度提高，个人的经济自由和社会权利得到 部分恢复，公民社会开始生长，民间对人权和政治自由的呼声日益高涨。执政者也在进行走向市场化和私有化的经济改革的同时，开始了从拒绝人权到逐渐承认人权 的转变。中国政府于1997年、1998年分别签署了两个重要的国际人权公约，全国人大于2004年通过修宪把“尊重和保障人权”写进宪法，今年又承诺制 订和推行《国家人权行动计划》。但是，这些政治进步迄今为止大多停留在纸面上；有法律而无法治，有宪法而无宪政，仍然是有目共睹的政治现实。执政集团继续 坚持维系威权统治，排拒政治变革，由此导致官场腐败，法治难立，人权不彰，道德沦丧，社会两极分化，经济畸形发展，自然环境和人文环境遭到双重破坏，公民 的自由、财产和追求幸福的权利得不到制度化的保障，各种社会矛盾不断积累，不满情绪持续高涨，特别是官民对立激化和群体事件激增，正在显示着灾难性的失控趋势，现行体制的落伍已经到了非改不可的地步。
二、我们的基本理念
当此决定中国未来命运的历史关头，有必要反思百年来的现代化历程，重申如下基本理念：
自由：自由是普世价值的核心之所在。言论、出版、信仰、集会、结社、迁徙、罢工和游行示威等权利都是自由的具体体现。自由不昌，则无现代文明可言。
人权：人权不是国家的赐予，而是每个人与生俱来就享有的权利。保障人权，既是政府的首要目标和公共权力合法性的基础，也是“以人为本”的内在要求。中国的历次政治灾难都与执政当局对人权的无视密切相关。人是国家的主体，国家服务于人民，政府为人民而存在。
平等：每一个个体的人，不论社会地位、职业、性别、经济状况、种族、肤色、宗教或政治信仰，其人格、尊严、自由都是平等的。必须落实法律面前人人平等的原则，落实公民的社会、经济、文化、政治权利平等的原则。
共和：共和就是“大家共治，和平共生”，就是分权制衡与利益平衡，就是多种利益成分、不同社会集团、多元文化与信仰追求的群体，在平等参与、公平竞争、共同议政的基础上，以和平的方式处理公共事务。
民主：最基本的涵义是主权在民和民选政府。民主具有如下基本特点：（1）政权的合法性来自人民，政治权力来源于人民；（2）政治统治经过人民选择，（3）公民享有真正的选举权，各级政府的主要政务官员必须通过定期的竞选产生。（4）尊重多数人的决定，同时保护少数人的基本人权。一句话，民主使政府成为“民有，民治，民享”的现代公器。
宪政：宪政是通过法律规定和法治来保障宪法确定的公民基本自由和权利的原则，限制并划定政府权力和行为的边界，并提供相应的制度设施。
在中国，帝国皇权的时代早已一去不复返了；在世界范围内，威权体制也日近黄昏；公民应该成为真正的国家主人。祛除依赖“明君”、“清官”的臣民意识，张扬权利为本、参与为责的公民意识，实践自由，躬行民主，尊奉法治，才是中国的根本出路。
三、我们的基本主张
藉此，我们本着负责任与建设性的公民精神对国家政制、公民权利与社会发展诸方面提出如下具体主张：
修改宪法：根据前述价值理念修改宪法，删除现行宪法中不符合主权在民原则的条文，使宪法真正成为人权的保证书和公共权力的许可状，成为任何个人、团体和党派不得违反的可以实施的最高法律，为中国民主化奠定法权基础。
分权制衡：构建分权制衡的现代政府，保证立法、司法、行政三权分立。确立法定行政和责任政府的原则，防止行政权力过分扩张；政府应对纳税人负责；在中央和地方之间建立分权与制衡制度，中央权力须由宪法明确界定授权，地方实行充分自治。
立法民主：各级立法机构由直选产生，立法秉持公平正义原则，实行立法民主。
司法独立：司法应超越党派、不受任何干预，实行司法独立，保障司法公正；设立宪法法院，建立违宪审查制度，维护宪法权威。尽早撤销严重危害国家法治的各级党的政法委员会，避免公器私用。
公器公用：实现军队国家化，军人应效忠于宪法，效忠于国家，政党组织应从军队中退出，提高军队职业化水平。包括警察在内的所有公务员应保持政治中立。消除公务员录用的党派歧视，应不分党派平等录用。
人权保障：切实保障人权，维护人的尊严。设立对最高民意机关负责的人权委员会，防止政府滥用公权侵犯人权，尤其要保障公民的人身自由，任何人不受非法逮捕、拘禁、传讯、审问、处罚，废除劳动教养制度。
公职选举：全面推行民主选举制度，落实一人一票的平等选举权。各级行政首长的直接选举应制度化地逐步推行。定期自由竞争选举和公民参选法定公共职务是不可剥夺的基本人权。
城乡平等：废除现行的城乡二元户籍制度，落实公民一律平等的宪法权利，保障公民的自由迁徙权。
结社自由：保障公民的结社自由权，将现行的社团登记审批制改为备案制。开放党禁，以宪法和法律规范政党行为，取消一党垄断执政特权，确立政党活动自由和公平竞争的原则，实现政党政治正常化和法制化。
集会自由：和平集会、游行、示威和表达自由，是宪法规定的公民基本自由，不应受到执政党和政府的非法干预与违宪限制。
言论自由：落实言论自由、出版自由和学术自由，保障公民的知情权和监督权。制订《新闻法》和《出版法》，开放报禁，废除现行《刑法》中的“煽动颠覆国家政权罪”条款，杜绝以言治罪。
宗教自由：保障宗教自由与信仰自由，实行政教分离，宗教信仰活动不受政府干预。审查并撤销限制或剥夺公民宗教自由的行政 法规、行政规章和地方性法规；禁止以行政立法管理宗教活动。废除宗教团体（包括宗教活动场所）必经登记始获合法地位的事先许可制度，代之以无须任何审查的 备案制。
公民教育：取消服务于一党统治、带有浓厚意识形态色彩的政治教育与政治考试，推广以普世价值和公民权利为本的公民教育，确立公民意识，倡导服务社会的公民美德。
财产保护：确立和保护私有财产权利，实行自由、开放的市场经济制度，保障创业自由，消除行政垄断；设立对最高民意机关负责的国有资产管理委员会，合法有序地展开产权改革，明晰产权归属和责任者；开展新土地运动，推进土地私有化，切实保障公民尤其是农民的土地所有权。
财税改革：确立民主财政和保障纳税人的权利。建立权责明确的公共财政制度构架和运行机制，建立各级政府合理有效的财政分 权体系；对赋税制度进行重大改革，以降低税率、简化税制、公平税负。非经社会公共选择过程，民意机关决议，行政部门不得随意加税、开征新税。通过产权改 革，引进多元市场主体和竞争机制，降低金融准入门槛，为发展民间金融创造条件，使金融体系充分发挥活力。
社会保障：建立覆盖全体国民的社会保障体制，使国民在教育、医疗、养老和就业等方面得到最基本的保障。
环境保护：保护生态环境，提倡可持续发展，为子孙后代和全人类负责；明确落实国家和各级官员必须为此承担的相应责任；发挥民间组织在环境保护中的参与和监督作用。
联邦共和：以平等、公正的态度参与维持地区和平与发展，塑造一个负责任的大国形象。维护香港、澳门的自由制度。在自由民主的前提下，通过平等谈判与合作互动的方式寻求海峡两岸和解方案。以大智慧探索各民族共同繁荣的可能途径和制度设计，在民主宪政的架构下建立中华联邦共和国。
转型正义：为历次政治运动中遭受政治迫害的人士及其家属，恢复名誉，给予国家赔偿；释放所有政治犯和良心犯，释放所有因信仰而获罪的人员；成立真相调查委员会，查清历史事件的真相，厘清责任，伸张正义；在此基础上寻求社会和解。
四、结语
中国作为世界大国，作为联合国安理会五个常任理事国之一和人权理事会的成员，理应为人类和平事业与人权进步做出自身的贡献。但令人遗憾的是，在当今 世界的所有大国里，唯独中国还处在威权主义政治生态中，并由此造成连绵不断的人权灾难和社会危机，束缚了中华民族的自身发展，制约了人类文明的进步——这 种局面必须改变！政治民主化变革不能再拖延下去。
为此，我们本着勇于践行的公民精神，公布《零八宪章》。我们希望所有具有同样危机感、责任感和使命感的中国公民，不分朝野，不论身份，求同存异，积 极参与到公民运动中来，共同推动中国社会的伟大变革，以期早日建成一个自由、民主、宪政的国家，实现国人百余年来锲而不舍的追求与梦想。
0 件のコメント:
コメントを投稿